Ecosystem-based adaptation practices for smallholder farmers’ climate resilience in Mabalane district

Abstract

Ecosystem-based adaptation practices emerged as a sustainable strategy for enhancing smallholder farmers’ climate resilience, particularly in drought-prone areas where declining crop yields threaten livelihoods and food security. However, limited research has examined smallholder farmers’ perceptions of the effectiveness and co-benefits of ecosystem-based adaptation practices. This study investigated the perceived effectiveness of ecosystem-based adaptation practices, co-benefits smallholder farmers derived at farm-level, and their influence on adoption decisions among smallholder farmers. A mixed method approach was employed, combining a one-time household survey of 360 farm household heads conducted between 11 September and 11 October 2025 with focus group discussions and key informant interviews in the Mabalane district. The findings identified mixed cropping (83.9%), integrated crop- livestock management (57.2%), and mulch tillage (51.1%) as the most widely adopted ecosystem-based adaptation practices. Smallholder farmers perceived these practices as effective primarily because of their visible contributions to improved soil fertility, soil moisture content, crop productivity, and food security. Additionally, multiple ecological and socio- economic co-benefits, including erosion control, pest regulation, enhanced agrobiodiversity, and income diversification were reported. Although the study revealed statistically significant relationships between ecosystem-based adaptation practices and the perceived co-benefits, these co-benefits were not statistically significant associated with an increase in the number of adopted practices. The results suggest that while perceived effectiveness and co-benefits reinforce the value of ecosystem-based adaptation practices, adoption decisions among smallholder farmers were not driven by the perceived axillary benefits derived from ecosystem- based adaptation practices alone, but a broader set of factors, including enabling conditions and resource endowments. Therefore, it is concluded that, the predominance of three main ecosystem-based adaptation practices in the study area reflects their compatibility with traditional farming systems and their direct contributions in strengthening local climate resilience