Abstract:
Ecosystem-based adaptation practices emerged as a sustainable strategy for enhancing
smallholder farmers’ climate resilience, particularly in drought-prone areas where declining
crop yields threaten livelihoods and food security. However, limited research has examined
smallholder farmers’ perceptions of the effectiveness and co-benefits of ecosystem-based
adaptation practices. This study investigated the perceived effectiveness of ecosystem-based
adaptation practices, co-benefits smallholder farmers derived at farm-level, and their influence
on adoption decisions among smallholder farmers. A mixed method approach was employed,
combining a one-time household survey of 360 farm household heads conducted between 11
September and 11 October 2025 with focus group discussions and key informant interviews in
the Mabalane district. The findings identified mixed cropping (83.9%), integrated crop-
livestock management (57.2%), and mulch tillage (51.1%) as the most widely adopted
ecosystem-based adaptation practices. Smallholder farmers perceived these practices as
effective primarily because of their visible contributions to improved soil fertility, soil moisture
content, crop productivity, and food security. Additionally, multiple ecological and socio-
economic co-benefits, including erosion control, pest regulation, enhanced agrobiodiversity,
and income diversification were reported. Although the study revealed statistically significant
relationships between ecosystem-based adaptation practices and the perceived co-benefits,
these co-benefits were not statistically significant associated with an increase in the number of
adopted practices. The results suggest that while perceived effectiveness and co-benefits
reinforce the value of ecosystem-based adaptation practices, adoption decisions among
smallholder farmers were not driven by the perceived axillary benefits derived from ecosystem-
based adaptation practices alone, but a broader set of factors, including enabling conditions and
resource endowments.
Therefore, it is concluded that, the predominance of three main ecosystem-based adaptation
practices in the study area reflects their compatibility with traditional farming systems and their
direct contributions in strengthening local climate resilience
