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Adaptation strategies to the impacts of climate change: smallholder farmers’ decision-making on climate-smart practices adoption

2026-07-08T10:08:38Z

Title: Adaptation strategies to the impacts of climate change: smallholder farmers’ decision-making on climate-smart practices adoption Authors: Calvince, Andele O. Abstract: Climate change severely threatens stallholder agriculture in Mozambique, where frequent droughts, floods, and cyclones undermine food security. Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) offers resilience-enhancing practices, yet despite decades of promotion, adoption among smallholders remain low, limiting climate adaptation. This thesis investigates farmers’ perceptions of CSA practices and determinants of adoption, and synthesizes evidence on how digital agricultural technologies influence CSA decision-making. The study comprises a cross- sectional survey of 400 smallholder farmers in Zavala district, Mozambique, and a systematic review of 82 studies across sub-Saharan Africa. Results show that awareness of 13 CSA practices ranged from 47-100%. Three awareness-knowledge patterns emerged–awareness exceeding knowledge (rainwater harvesting, 81% awareness vs. 39% knowledge), knowledge exceeding awareness (improved varieties, 67% knowledge vs. 47% awareness), and aligned awareness and knowledge patterns for eight practices. Understanding of CSA principles lagged considerably (r = 0.151) with knowledge. Perceived compatibility (β = 0.342) and trialability (β = 0.418) were the strongest adoption drivers. The systematic review identified three complementary pathways through which digital technologies influence perceptions: real-time information provision, predictive analytics and integrated indigenous-scientific systems. Education was the strongest predictor of awareness-knowledge pattern: secondary-educated farmers knew nearly triple the practices of primary-only farmers (11.60 vs 6.82, p < 0.001). Women outperformed men on awareness (11.34 vs 7.47), knowledge (10.21 vs 6.82) and principles (9.45 vs 6.24) all at p < 0.001. Multinomial logistic regression showed that age (OR = 0.391), male gender (OR = 0.068), farming experience (OR = 1.322), and cooperative membership (p < 0.026) significantly differentiated adoption levels. Linear regression explained 83% of variance in awareness, 87% in knowledge but only 7.6% in understanding of principles. Systematic review identified interconnected infrastructural, economic, institutional, and gender as barriers to adoption. These findings imply that extension should shift from awareness campaigns to principle-based participatory training, align terminologies with farmers language, invest in secondary education, leverage women as peer educators, and address structural barriers like infrastructural, credit, and land rights. Digital technologies require simultaneous investment in enabling environments to scale, and adoption depends more on deep understanding and compatibility than simple awareness

Ecosystem-based adaptation practices for smallholder farmers’ climate resilience in Mabalane district

2026-07-02T10:48:46Z

Title: Ecosystem-based adaptation practices for smallholder farmers’ climate resilience in Mabalane district Authors: Waran, Claudius Patrick Taban Abstract: Ecosystem-based adaptation practices emerged as a sustainable strategy for enhancing smallholder farmers’ climate resilience, particularly in drought-prone areas where declining crop yields threaten livelihoods and food security. However, limited research has examined smallholder farmers’ perceptions of the effectiveness and co-benefits of ecosystem-based adaptation practices. This study investigated the perceived effectiveness of ecosystem-based adaptation practices, co-benefits smallholder farmers derived at farm-level, and their influence on adoption decisions among smallholder farmers. A mixed method approach was employed, combining a one-time household survey of 360 farm household heads conducted between 11 September and 11 October 2025 with focus group discussions and key informant interviews in the Mabalane district. The findings identified mixed cropping (83.9%), integrated crop- livestock management (57.2%), and mulch tillage (51.1%) as the most widely adopted ecosystem-based adaptation practices. Smallholder farmers perceived these practices as effective primarily because of their visible contributions to improved soil fertility, soil moisture content, crop productivity, and food security. Additionally, multiple ecological and socio- economic co-benefits, including erosion control, pest regulation, enhanced agrobiodiversity, and income diversification were reported. Although the study revealed statistically significant relationships between ecosystem-based adaptation practices and the perceived co-benefits, these co-benefits were not statistically significant associated with an increase in the number of adopted practices. The results suggest that while perceived effectiveness and co-benefits reinforce the value of ecosystem-based adaptation practices, adoption decisions among smallholder farmers were not driven by the perceived axillary benefits derived from ecosystem- based adaptation practices alone, but a broader set of factors, including enabling conditions and resource endowments. Therefore, it is concluded that, the predominance of three main ecosystem-based adaptation practices in the study area reflects their compatibility with traditional farming systems and their direct contributions in strengthening local climate resilience

Effects of climate variability on rice production and farmers’ resilience in Liberia

2026-07-02T10:47:52Z

Title: Effects of climate variability on rice production and farmers’ resilience in Liberia Authors: Simpson, Bondo T. Abstract: Climate variability poses major challenges to agriculture worldwide amid increasing population growth and rising food demand. In Liberia, rice is a staple crop, however, its production remains low and highly vulnerable to changing climate conditions. This study evaluates the impact of climate variability on rice production while identifying suitable areas for sustainable rice cultivation in Liberia. Rice production and yield data were obtained from the Food and Agriculture Organization Statistics (FAOSTAT) database, while climate variables (temperature and precipitation) were sourced from ERA5 Agrometeorological Indicators and Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Station (CHIRPS), for the period of 1990–2023. Climate trends and relationships with rice production were examined using the Mann–Kendall test, Sen’s slope estimator, and Spearman’s rank correlation, while Multiple Linear Regression was applied to estimate climate impacts on rice productivity. In addition, a GIS-based Multi-Criteria Decision- Making approach using the Analytic Hierarchy Process was employed to map rice suitability. Results indicate that mean, minimum, and maximum temperatures increased by 0.57 °C, 0.55 °C, and 0.55 °C, with a strong variability in precipitation, reaching 180.31 mm. Production observed a total increase of 76,200 tons, while yield remained relative stable at 1.2 tone/hectare. Regression results revealed a significant negative impact of minimum temperature (p = 0.015) on rice production and a positive effect of precipitation on yield (p = 0.036). Suitability analysis shows that 5.57% of Liberia is highly suitable, 44.57% suitable, 42.41% moderately suitable, and 7.45% unsuitable for rice cultivation, with soil pH, slope, and soil texture identified as key limiting factors. Highly suitable areas are found in the central, northern, and southeastern counties, including Lofa, Bong, Nimba, Gbarpolu, Grand Gedeh, and River Gee. Overall, the findings highlight the sensitivity of rice production to climate variability and demonstrate significant potential for expanding rice cultivation through strategic land-use planning, improved technologies, and institutional support to strengthen farmer resilience and national food security

Assessment of fall armyworm behavioral response on three repellent plants for potential integration in push pull technology

2026-07-02T10:47:27Z

Title: Assessment of fall armyworm behavioral response on three repellent plants for potential integration in push pull technology Authors: Gathundia, Stephen Thuku Abstract: Maize (Zea mays) remain one of the important crop cultivated worldwide. In Mozambique, it is a staple food crop for the majority of the population. However, pests such as Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) threatens maize production with complete crop loss being reported. The use of insecticides remains common choice of FAW management coupled with human and environmental hazards leading to increasing concerns over their long- term sustainability. This highlights the need for shift of interest to Integrated Pest Management (IPM) practices among which are behavioral manipulation methods. A promising nature based FAW management technique within the scope of IPM is Push Pull technology which involve repelling (Push) FAW away from the economical crop using volatile stimuli and driving them towards attractive crop (pull). However, use of desmodium has limited adoption necessitating need of diversifying push plants. Basil (Ocimum basilicum), coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) and mint (Mentha × piperita) are repellent intercrops, with food and direct economic value, may represent better options in place of desmodium and remain largely underexplored. This study assesses the behavior of FAW when exposed to basil, coriander and mint. Laboratory oviposition studies were conducted in no choice and two choice, extended also in semi field conditions. Additionally, FAW survival, development duration and reproductive parameters were estimated when reared on the test plants. In laboratory conditions a Y tube olfactometer was used to study behavioral responses to various stimuli. The no choice tests revealed high mean number of eggs (191.9 ± 35.4) and egg masses (1.6 ± 0.3) oviposited on basil, followed by coriander (103.7 ± 37.6; 1.1 ± 0.4), while mint had the least (46.1 ± 26.9; 0.5 ± 0.3). Two choice oviposition revealed high oviposition in basil (328 ± 33.9 eggs; 3.2 ± 0.3 egg masses) and coriander (222.8 ± 43.6; 2 ± 0.4), while mint showed oviposition mainly on cage walls (473 ± 64.8; 3.6 ± 0.3) and least on mint (136.6 ± 38.5; 1.5 ± 0.4). Semi field two choice experiment revealed high eggs (1237 ± 135) and egg masses (7.5 ± 0.5) on basil, while mint had the least (826 ± 25.0; 4.25 ± 0.25). Basil-fed larvae showed highest survival, shortest development, highest pupal weight, pupation rate, and highest fecundity in F 1 and F 2 , followed by coriander, while mint caused total mortality. Y tube olfactometer response showed high attractiveness to basil (75%) and coriander (57.1%), while mint showed low relative olfactory selection rate (14.3%). The trial between test plants against maize showed selection rates of 30% for basil, 28.6% for coriander and 10% for mint. When combined with maize, basil showed highest preference (40%), followed by coriander (25%), while mint had the least (20%). Generally, mint exhibited potential repellent properties